Wednesday, December 1, 2010

Corporate Exercises: Accounting’s games that have no value add

Bonus Issue, Share Split, Share Consolidation, Capital Reduction, Special Dividend Payout (Capital Repayment) and Share Dividend and any other types of corporate exercises have no value add to the shareholders’ value. Even Right Issue with an issue price that is lower than the market price will not have positive impact to the shareholders’ value. If the shareholder who does not want to further pump in more capital into the company by subscribing the additional Right Shares at a discount to its market price, the shareholder’s right will be greatly diluted.

Basically these kind of corporate exercises are transferring the money from the left pocket to the right pocket in disguise to mislead the shareholders that their value in the company has increased. Do you think the value 10 pieces of RM10 would be more than the value 1 piece of RM100?

There are always justifications from analysts about the corporate exercises would bring positive impact to the shareholders’ value, whereby my opinion is “it depends”. So what could be the actual impact of such corporate exercises? Please refer below:-

1) Increase the number of shares will increase the liquidity of the shares will reduce the illiquidity premium and thus share price would increase;

2) Supply of shares increase substantially and this would shift the supply curve right-ward and thus decrease the share price; and

3) Most of the corporate exercises do not change the shareholders’ value of the fund but they engage investment bankers to carry out the corporate exercises, and these investment bankers are not cheap. So the shareholders’ value indeed decreases due to expenses pay investment bankers.

Of course analysts would try to play around the abovementioned points to justify when to “buy and sell”. When the market is in bull run, they would say it’s good to have Bonus Issue as it increases the liquidity of the shares; when the market is in bear mood, they would say Bonus Issue will cause excess of supply which subsequently reduce the share price. Basically I would say these analysts have no view and are bullshitting.

As a conclusion, a company will only increase its shareholders’ value through its daily operating activities, not via some kind of complicated corporate exercises or financial activities. Know how to calculate the basis of the corporate exercises would be the way to discover the trick of the accounting games.

Monday, November 15, 2010

My Update

Previously I have been sharing some investment analysis on certain stock or sharing the experience of attending AGMs, but I realised I'd be either too lazy to write so much on the same stuff and sometimes cannot recall what I have observed during the AGMs. I always can't keep on updating the long stories that I was writting and thus I trully feel sorry to those who were following my blog.

I just started a new job in an investment bank recently, and the work load becomes quite heavy lately and always work long hours, so I can't concentrate on writting long story in the blog. In view of this, from now on, I'll only write something in short and spontaneous to what I can think of. And I would like to say thank you to those friends who would be keep visting my blog once a while in the future.

Saturday, November 6, 2010

How to evaluate a company's fair value? I'm puzzling.

Let me share some of my investment experience of analysing a company's fair value.

1st I'll check the company's management, if the quality of the management is good then I'll further check out their intrinsic value. If they are not integrity enough such as the "Berjaya" gang of companies are out of my radar screen.

2nd step is to evaluate a company's fair value. But what methods I should use? It depends on whether we are insider? Are we the substantial shareholder and be able to impose decision making onto the company's management and subsequently affect the distribution of the company cashflow?
1) If you are minority shareholders, maybe Discounted Dividend Model (DDM) is suitable.
2) If you are controlling shareholders, then Discounted Free Cashflow Model (DCF) could be a good tool.

However, these discounted models are too complicated because a lot of the people don't know how to use financial modeling to project future dividends/cashflows and subsequently to use the correct discount rate and constant growth rate to get the accurate PV. A small fault input or assumption could have lead to a disastrous outcome by using these models.

Then people would tend to make life easy by using P/E, P/B or P/S. But these relative valuations have their own weaknesses due to irregualr year of financial results and thus P/E, P/B or P/S could be invalid for certain years. In addition, certain ratios only applicable to certain sectors. For example P/B could be good for banking or property stocks because they rely on their asset to generate value, but it is not a good indicator for knowledge intensive sector such as IT companies since they make business base on human resource, not physical assets.

In order to justify the application of relative valuations, analyst would tend to get a normalised or average ratios for P/E, P/B or P/S by removing some of the outliers. Subsequently they further supplement these ratios by comparing with the Adjusted Net Asset (book value). IMHO, it's stupid to value a company base on NAV, because doing business is forward looking, so we should not evaluate a company based on its historical figures. If a company is making losses but sitting with huge base asset, what's the point we buy a company's at a discount to its NAV knowing a negative retain profit is gradually shrinking the company's NAV?

With all these absolute and relative valuation models, oh hell! they still cannot get us the exact valuation. So there are another value investing strategy comes to play that we should buy a company with a margin of safety to it's intrinsic value. At the end of the day, all we can see that we don't have some rocket science tools to get us the actual value but a vague range of valuation.

In order to understand a company's valuation, it all depends on how good is our business sense or instinct, how well we can understand the business model and how far we can look beyond the business prospect. It's not necessary to become well equipped in academic theory and historical numbers in order to be a good investor or else there would be a lot mathematicians, statisticians and historians become success in investment.

I like the quote from John Maynard Keynes as he had once said "It is better to be roughly right than precisely wrong”. The same quote does apply to value an investment because it's an art, not a science or mathematics.

Thursday, September 2, 2010

ICAP's 6th Annual General Meeting (Part 5)

About the discussion of the discount to NAV, I have missed one very important part that mentioned by TTB. TTB said in the AGM that he was puzzled about the discounting situation in ICAP. He suggested that the discount could be due to investors in Bursa Malaysia still has long way to pick up their confidence to invest in the share market, and thus there are still quite a number of companies traded in discount to their net asset values or net book values and ICAP is one of them. Moreover, majority of close-end funds are typically traded in discount, either be those funds are local fund or foreign fund. However, according to TTB’s view, he believes that ICAP would be back to trade in premium due to cost awareness, no derivatives, no leveraging and more important is value investing philosophy.

TTB further argued that why investors should not take the share price too heavily when making investment decision. Indeed he always encourages investors to look into value, and for the case of ICAP, the yardstick to evaluate its value is to refer to its NAV. Since ICAP is currently trading in discount, it’s a very good period for investors to buy ICAP now. Because TTB believes that ICAP is well managed and thus its future NAV will be higher than the current NAV. So it’s better to have a discount to a rising NAV rather than to have an NAV that is falling. He further provided an example at February 2009, ICAP’s NAV was about RM1.5 and it was then traded in a huge discount at a price roughly of RM1.2. Subsequently the ICAP’s NAV recovered during the share market rally and stand at about RM2.2, the market price of ICAP also increased along side with the NAV as well to RM1.9. He further told the shareholders if any investor who bought ICAP shares at February 2009 and hold those shares until today, the investor would have made more than 50% of return within 1.5 years even thought the share price is still traded in discount to its NAV today.

Anyway, TTB stressed that he is working his best efforts to close the gap of the share price and NAV. Holding the “Investor Day” seminar after the ICAP’s AGM is one of the efforts that he is taking. The share buy back scheme would be another solution to solve the discount issue, though TTB mentioned he will only consider share buy back if the discount is deep enough.

(to be continued)

Wednesday, August 25, 2010

ICAP's 6th Annual General Meeting (Part 4)

Finally it came to the voting session to approve those proposed agenda. However, there was an incident happened during the voting process. The company secretary wanted voters to raise their hand with the ‘shareholder card’ given in order to indicate they approve the said agenda. However, we were confused at that moment because we did not receive any ‘shareholder card’ from the organiser. So the voting process was becoming chaos and shareholders inquired why we need to show the ‘shareholder card’ then only we can vote and we were not given with the card. The company secretary explained to us that some shareholders might assign proxies to attend the AGM, and it was possible a shareholder could assign two proxies. In order to limit one shareholder only have 1 vote, so one of the two proxies, who were assigned from the same delegation, can vote if he has the card. Later the company secretary apologised to us that she made a mistake because the rule of voting with the card had been cancelled and thus every shareholders or proxies can vote. I was not quite pleasure to this announcement made by the lady because she should not make this kind of mistake and confuse the shareholders. Some more she was doing a right move initially because there was only one proxy can vote with the delegation of voting right from the shareholder. And now everyone can votes will lead to a situation that two proxies can vote from the same delegation and thus it is unfair to those shareholders who do not assign two proxies to vote. Luckily the shareholders had no different opinion or dispute over the 6 agenda and approved the agenda unanimously or else the voting result can be challenged in the court. I hope this kind of mistake will not repeat in the next AGM.

The second half of the AGM was the presentation of investment portfolio of ICAP by TTB. I divide the presentation into two parts: presentations of the investment portfolio and of the economic outlooks.


The following information is the listed companies that the fund held as at 16-June-2010 (refer to the 2010 annual report):-

1) Parkson Holdings;

2) F & N Holdings;

3) Boustead;

4) Petronas Dagangan;

5) Padini Holdings Bhd;

6) PIE;

7) Suria Capital;

8) Integrax;

9) Tong Herr Resources;

10) Malaysia Smelting Corp;

11) Mieco Chipboard; and

12) Hai-O Enterprise.


TTB also explained to shareholders why the fund disposed the share of the following companies as stated below:-

1) Astro All Asia Network plc;

2) Kuala Lumpur Kepong Berhad;

3) Lion Diversified Holdings Berhad;

4) Poh Kong Holdings Berhad;

5) Swee Joo Berhad;

6) Telekom Malaysia Berhad; and

7) Hai-O Enterprise.


(to be continued)

Monday, August 23, 2010

ICAP's 6th Annual General Meeting (Part 3)

I still recalled the ICAP’s extraordinary general meeting holding at last year of which the motion of investing overseas was rejected by most of the shareholders. In view of this, the management of ICAP mentioned that the board and fund manager was proposing another plan to invest overseas and they were waiting for the approval from the relevant authorities. However, after so many months, there is no any feedback from the relevant authorities as told by the Board. Though they kept telling us that once they received any new update from the authorities, they will let the shareholders know about the latest update via announcement. Even TTB once almost want to tell the shareholders what is the proposal they are working on hardly to get the authorities approve, as TTB told us his hair growing grayer and grayer during these few months as a result of this issue, but he just stopped telling almost us more due to the confidential of the proposal and probably the company is barred from disclosing any immaterialised proposal to the public.Anyway, TTB said there are still a lot of opportunities in Bursa as the fund is still able to achieve a remarkable return by just investing in Bursa. He pointed out that investing overseas is no rocket science that can guarantee us a higher return. He further provided more evidence to prove that even investing in Bursa can have a return that equal or bit a lot of overseas counters such as DBS, Cheong Kong and even Berkshire Harthaway. The return of the fund of also at least equal or more than a lot of local famous stocks like Genting and Maybank (interesting to know that Maybank’s share price still lower than its pre-Lehman crisis price) of which a lot of investors might not aware of.


The next issue to be discussed is the share price of ICAP is traded in discount to its net asset value (“NAV”). As a shareholder stated that ICAP’s share price has traded in discount since the Lehman crisis. He hoped the management can take the discount seriously and make some effort to close the gap in between share price and NAV. Because his concern was that if he invests ICAP for short term and would like to dispose it in the nearcoming future, he might just liquidate the position in ICAP for a loss. TTB immediately rebuff that he would not take a short term investment decision into consideration to solve the discount issue, as he explained the fund ‘s objective has stated clearly in the IPO prospectus that it is a fund aims to achieve capital appreciation in long-term period. So he will not let any individual short term investors to influence the fund not to comply with its mandate. So I interpreted that TTB just indirectly told the shareholder that it is his own mistake to make losses by investing ICAP due to his short-term tenure, instead he should not have invested into the fund from the beginning.


Some shareholders also proposed that the fund to distribute dividend with a yield rate to be par with the fixed deposit rate or the fund can initiate a share buy back scheme and distribute those treasury shares as share dividend. While I’m quite interesting to the proposal of share buy back, I totally object the distribution of dividend. As I have mentioned in many elsewhere before that the objective of setting up the ICAP fund is to make capital appreciation in long run. So what is the purpose of distributing cash back to shareholers? What is the purpose we invest capital into a fund and later want to take back the cash before it is long enough for the capital to appreciate, and end up need to put the cash back to the fund again?


Don’t forget that ICAP is a close-end (“CE”) fund, it is not like the open-end Unit Trust (“UT”) fund that can issue new units to get fresh proceed if those unit holders re-invest the dividend. For a CE fund, once it distributed cash, it has less proceed to invest and whatever the re-investment decision made by unit holders has nothing to do with the CE fund, and thus the dividend policy greatly reduce the speed to accumulate wealth through the fund and thus defeat the objective of setting up the fund. ICAP’s another objective is to implement value investing strategy, which means it always need to sits with a lot of cash and wait to buy stocks at a price that discount to their valuation at a right time. So after distribute cash back to shareholders, then how the hell ICAP going to buy cheap stocks? Sometimes I just dislike why there are lot of old man buying ICAP shares (as I observed that a lot of aged fellows who attended the AGM and year by year keep asking the fund the pay dividend) and not the young people be the majority shareholders of ICAP? So old people with age retiring mind please leave ICAP alone and pick other dividend stocks instead (for those people who are old but with young mind you are still welcome). And as usual, TTB just took the dividend proposal back to the shareholders that it is up to the shareholders to decide. If in the next AGM the shareholders decide to have dividend to be distributed, the fund will then deviate from its long term value investing objective, I’m sure I’ll be the first one to dispose its shares and other value investors may follow so, then we will see if the price discount issue will be solved or becoming wider.


Regarding the share buy back scheme, TTB mentioned that he will consider to advise the fund to work on the scheme if the market price of ICAP is deeply traded discount to its NAV, for example a 50% discount. Whereby my opinion is not to reject share buy back scheme, but we first need to consider some of its disadvantages and whether could it really solve the discount issue. First, share buy back will reduce the free-float number of ICAP shares and liquidity will reduce subsequently, thus it may not narrow the discount and instead it could make an even wider discount. Second, ICAP may use the cash to invest some potential investments that give a very attractive return which could outperform the discount. Currently the discount of ICAP’s price to its NAV range from a 10% to 19%, so we assume as ICAP could buy back its own shares at an average price of 15% to its NAV, however it can also invest the cash to buy other more potential stocks that achieve a return that higher than 15%, so which one is a better choice?


(to be continued)

Friday, August 20, 2010

ICAP's 6th Annual General Meeting (Part 2)

The shareholders continually stood out to inquire more questions during the agenda session. One of the shareholders asked what is the rational that the fund is holding so much of cash as reported by the annual report. TTB was not pleased that the shareholder was asking this question due to he not reading the annual report of which at page 3 has stated that “…your Fund sold all of them before 15 April 2010 as it wanted to raise its cash holdings It was extremely worried over a full-scale currency and trade war breaking out between the US and China. Such an outbreak would be extremely harmful to the global economy.” He asked the shareholder goes to read the page himself about the reason why the fund is holding cash.


Another shareholder further request TTB should reduce the cash holding at a high level at RM103million, and he wants the fund to utilise the cash efficiently rather sitting it in the fixed deposit account. TTB then said as the US unemployment is still high at around 9% and he is troubled by the US politicians might try to convince the US voters that the high unemployment rate is caused by the Chinese’s manipulation of the yuan currency and thus the threat of trade war due to the friction in between the US and China still exists, especially during the period that the US is going to have a state election at end of this year. Anyhow, TTB mentioned that if the threat of the trade war fades away, he will try to seek opportunities with good bargain prices and invest the excessive cash.


One of the interesting questions being raised by the shareholders was that why the Company hires Harun Bin Halim Rasip (“Harun”), who is the co-chief executive officer of Integrax Berhad (“Integrax”), as the independent non-executive director. As the shareholders are concerned about the conflict of interest in between Integrax and ICAP since ICAP has substantial investment at Integrax. The shareholder further pointed out that to have an Integrax’s CEO in the board of ICAP, it may cause a perception that ICAP could be using insider news of Integrax to trade. For my opinion, conflict of interest happens not only possible that ICAP to take advantage of Integrax by using insider news to trade, it could happen the other way that the related party to Integrax might also try to influence ICAP to invest more into Intregrax. Though TTB and Harun tried to explain that the fund manager’s investment decision would not be affected by the Board of ICAP and they further provided other reasons to justify the conflict of interest is minimal, I was not convinced by the justification. Anyway, it’s a norm that a person can be directors for multiple companies due to Bursa Listing Requirement of which allows him to do so. Hope Bursa can amend such requirement to curb the conflict of interest incident.


Before the agenda session was going to through the voting process, there were 3 more issues being raised by shareholders of which I was also quite interested to. The 3 issues were the update of the approval of the relevant authorities to ICAP’s proposal to invest overseas, the discount of market price to net asset value and the dividend policy.


(to be continue)

'跌就收长期,涨就卖短期'是否可行?

很多人都想投资很简单,认为短期暴涨就做短期,短期暴跌就做中长期(在这我称他们为无原则的投资者),自以为靠些小聪明就能一举成功,那Warren Buffet等的众股神也不在话下。我想这些投资者已经不知觉已经堕入只注重股价(Price)而不是股值(Value)的想法中。

很多时候这些无原则的投资者因为对价值的无知而高价买进已经高估的股票后其股价下跌就标榜自己为长期投资者,焉不知公司已无价所以股价可以跌至收盘。而当以低价超值买进的股票后却因不知价值,所以当股价上升了一小段就成为短期投资仓促卖出,结果在RM1买入RM2卖出不久后股价升上RM10就暗捶。

通常投资者可能在买进某股票的时候,已经为此股票设定了卖出的止损价(Stop Loss)和卖出的心水价(Target Price)。但由于无原则的投资者认为自己是长中短期皆可,那谁会相信他们会在达到止损价不卖出以做长期或达到心水价后就会短期卖出吗?

很多是时候就是因为没原则,所以这些投资者在到达当初设定价时可能已经受到当时的情况影响而改变注意,结果当初认为下跌了该收长期时因为恐慌而变短期卖,股票暴上升了后该做短期卖却因为贪婪以赚更多而变收长期。那到底这些投资者是要短期还是要长期?

那所谓'跌就收长期,涨就卖短期'说是简单,要实践就不容易了,更多时候这只不过是自欺欺人的说法。这些无原则的投资者通常都因为轻易受到外在因素的影响而犹豫并长长都卖在不适当的时机而遭受损失,典型的被自以为的小聪明所误。

Thursday, August 19, 2010

ICAP's 6th Annual General Meeting (Part 1)

Last Saturday (14-Aug-2010), I went together with a friend to attend the icapital.biz Berhad’s 6th Annual General Meeting (“AGM”) at KLCC Convention Centre. We reached at the said location at 8.30 a.m. After the shareholder registration, we were given a door gift voucher and subsequently we went to a counter to claim the door gift. Later we realised that there was no refreshment being served before the commencement of the AGM, though we were provided with the afternoon lunch voucher anyway, but you would find out later WTF was the lunch then. I think icapital.biz (“ICAP” or “the Company”) is becoming more ‘thrifty’ nowadays despite it is making profit…^_^!!

The AGM started at around 9 a.m. As usual, the chairman of ICAP hold the speaking of the proposal for the 6 agenda to be approved by the shareholders. The chairman and fund manager were tried to reply any inquiries about the agenda and the ICAP’s annual report for year 2010 from shareholders. However, I felt that the quality of the questions asked by shareholders was deteriorating year by year and this year the AGM would have the dumbest Q&A session from shareholders!

An uncle who looks like in his 60’s coming to ask few questions and those questions were so stupid that I didn’t want to hear his voice. Anyway, I still remembered clearly his first questions was related to the sources of the amount of the “Others Expenses” for year 2010. He seemed not happy that the Company was spending RM39,300 on this “Others Expenses”. The fund manager of ICAP, Tan Teng Boo (“fund manager” or “TTB”), patiently replied to the fellow that the “Others Expenses” contain few category of expenses of which he cannot remember the exact detail of the categories. Anyway, he later address this query that the “Others Expenses” do contain advertisement fees, printing fees, the cost of holding the AGM and other small small miscellaneous expenses. I was afraid later the uncle would then further inquired what is the ‘miscellaneous expenses’ and fortunately he didn’t do so or else I would stand out to stop him to waste our time.

The other 2 questions raised by this old uncle were related to those stocks that the fund manager has invested in. For the detail of the question I can’t recall exactly, but I still remember TTB mentioned that he would revert back to the old uncle with the 2 questions during the presentation of investment portfolio of the Company. However the old uncle not satisfied that TTB not addressing his questions and keep raising his voice to emphasise his questions need to be answered immediately. But TTB insist he would only mention those questions that related to the stocks the fund invested during the presentation. The old uncle who felt not happy with that TTB’s reply and grumble all the way during the meeting.

(to be continue)

Start to update the blog again

After stop updating my blog for the last few months as I was busy to prepare to sit for the CFA Level III exam, it's time for me to update my blog after complete the exam and knowing the result few days ago. I would update the blog more frequently whenever I encounter something interesting or post my investment research.

Tuesday, March 23, 2010

俄数学天才破解庞加莱猜想拒领菲尔兹奖和百万奖金

http://tech.sina.com.cn/d/2010-01-24/14363799212.shtml?from=iasknominate

http://tech.sina.com.cn/d/2006-09-07/09591124093.shtml

历史上,很多科学家都有着古怪的性格,科学家中的数学家,更是有多个人以古怪著称,而“古怪数学家”的典型代表就是来自俄罗斯的佩雷尔曼了。一谈到佩雷尔曼,除了提到他破解了大名鼎鼎的庞加莱猜想,拒绝领取数学界最高荣誉“菲尔兹”奖之外,话题的核心就是他与众不同的性格。最近,一本新出的传记《一个天才和世纪数学突破的故事》将这位有着古怪性格的伟大数学家的隐秘生活摆到人们面前。

  1

  抛弃名利

  拒“菲尔兹”和百万大奖

  1904年,法国数学家庞加莱做出了一个猜想,用三体空间来帮助理解宇宙的形状。这个猜想是拓朴学发展的关键。2000年,美国一家私人研究机构克莱数学研究所(Clay Mathematics Institute)宣布,为世界七大数学难题悬赏700万大奖。任何人只要解开其中任何一个难题,将获得 100万美元的奖金。“庞加莱猜想”就是这七大难题之一,其他一些难题包括计算机理论界的第一号难题“P Vs. NP”、以杨振宁命名的“杨-米尔斯理论”以及数学领域中最重要的猜想“黎曼假设”等。为了这七大难题,无数科学家费尽一生周折或几十年的光阴,最终选择放弃。人们甚至怀疑,这家研究所送不出哪怕是一分钱。

  最终,“七大难题攻不破”的咒语被打破了。2002年,一个名叫格利高里·佩雷尔曼(Grigori Perelman)的俄罗斯数学家破解了“庞加莱猜想”。

  在发表在预印本文献库arXiv.org上的一系列文章中,佩雷尔曼用简明扼要的语言扫除了证明“庞加莱猜想”的最终障碍。他的证明完全行得通,全球数学界震惊了。与此同时,小道消息也在不大的数学圈中传开:这个数学家似乎天生对名声就没有兴趣,只是简单地在网络上发表自己的研究,并不打算正式发表自己的论文。他继续隐居在他圣彼得堡的公寓中,偶尔接受媒体的采访,但几乎不和外界接触。

  2006年,中国数学家宣布另行解开了庞加莱猜想。不过,一些学者认为他们的结论事实上引用了佩雷尔曼的成果。此事一度引发巨大争议。不过,佩雷尔曼本人并没有对此发言,他显得更封闭了。

  当年,《科学》杂志以“本年度科学最大突破”之名承认,佩雷尔曼破解了庞加莱猜想,这算是数学界首次承认了他的成就。紧接着,数学界的诺贝尔奖 “菲尔兹” 奖被授予佩雷尔曼,这是国际数学联盟对他的正式肯定。然而,他的举动再次惊动世人———他竟然拒绝领取了这个数学界的诺贝尔奖,理由很简单,“这个奖和我没有关系。如果证据是正确的,每个人都能理解它,那么也不需要什么肯定。”

  佩雷尔曼同样也拒绝了克莱数学研究所的百万美元奖赏,如果要领取这个奖,他必须将论文发表在相关权威数学期刊上。他始终没有这么做。更令人惊讶的是,不久之后,佩雷尔曼就辞去了他在司捷克洛夫数学研究所的职位,他在辞职信中这么写着:“我对数学厌倦了,我想做不同的事情。”

  2

  成长过程

  “孤僻的数学天才”

  有人认为,佩雷尔曼个性孤僻,向来不善与人打交道,“隐居”生活并不奇怪;有人认为,佩雷尔曼和研究所发生了矛盾,当他破解了庞加莱猜想后,他的同事们却有意忽视了这个事实;还有人认为,尽管佩雷尔曼破解了世界难题,但他并没有领取“菲尔兹”奖,是因为他极度贫困到拿不出旅费来。而关于佩雷尔曼最新传记中,专注于后苏联时期知识分子的俄罗斯记者格森(Masha Gessen)认为,佩雷尔曼的确从小就是一个安静、孤僻但超级聪明的数学天才,但真正让他与世界自我隔离起来的,还是因为他对完美的极度追求。

  1966年,佩雷尔曼出生在列宁格勒市(现圣彼得堡)一个普通的犹太知识分子家庭,父亲是电机工程师,也是佩雷尔曼成长过程中重要的角色。他很喜欢用各种逻辑和数学的难题来挑战儿子的智慧。他给了儿子很多书,教会他下象棋,佩雷尔曼的母亲是名数学老师,他的姐姐后来也成为数学家。不过,只有佩雷尔曼从小就展示了惊人的数学才华。14岁时,佩雷尔曼已经成为圣彼得堡数学俱乐部的重要成员。圣彼得堡天才少年数学中心的主任瑞斯金(Serygey Rukshin)开始亲自指导佩雷尔曼的学习。两年后,佩雷尔曼以一个完美的满分获得了当年国际数学奥林比克竞赛的金奖。

  佩雷尔曼虽然孤僻,但很友善,无论对朋友还是同学,他都很友好。他自己在数学以外也有兴趣,比如他会听歌剧,会算计着生活的开支。

  16岁时,佩雷尔曼就进入了列宁格勒州立大学学习,很快就被安排到高级几何班中上学。他的表现完全折服了他的老师布莱格(Yuri Burago):“佩雷尔曼的回答总是正确的,他总是很仔细,很仔细地检查。他并不快,对他来说,速度根本没有关系。数学并非关于速度,是关于深度。”他在接受《纽约客》的采访时说。在休息的时候,佩雷尔曼会玩乒乓球,玩他妈妈教他的小提琴。一旦碰到了一个难题,小佩雷尔曼就会在自己的桌上反复地打一个乒乓球,使劲地搔自己的下巴,低声呻吟直到解开这个问题。

  3

  美国访学

  采蘑菇的数学家

  佩雷尔曼上大学的时候就不修边幅,指甲长到了弯曲的程度。他只想在一个知名的国家数学所中无拘无束地研究数学,他的梦想实现了。上世纪80年代末,佩雷尔曼以一篇“欧式几何”的论文结束了列宁格勒州立大学的博士项目研究。后来,他进入司捷克洛夫数学研究所,上升为一名闪耀的数学明星。

  1992年,他受邀到美国的纽约大学和纽约州立大学进行为期一年的访问。在美国,佩雷尔曼依然以古怪的性格和生活习惯出名。他每天都穿同样的一件灯芯绒棕色夹克衫,只吃俄罗斯黑面包、奶酪和发酵奶,指甲长到了几英寸长。“他就像怪僧拉斯普丁,长发飘飘,指甲巨长。”加州大学洛杉矶分校的数学家格林(Robert Greene)形容道。尽管佩雷尔曼很少与人打交道,美国同事们依然喜欢他。佩雷尔曼还将一个俄罗斯的爱好带到了美国:他会骑车到森林中去采蘑菇。

  佩雷尔曼在美国很重要的一个阶段是后来到普林斯顿大学高级研究中心,进行每周一次的讲座。

  同时,佩雷尔曼也认识了来自世界各地的重要数学家,比如瑟斯敦(William Thurston)和汉密尔顿(Richard Hamilton)。他们对佩雷尔曼的研究工作产生了很大的影响。

  随后,佩雷尔曼得到了一个加州大学伯克利分校的奖学金,在一次演讲中,他第一次透露了准备攻破庞加莱猜想的想法。佩雷尔曼在伯克利发表了几篇重要的论文,并参加了1994年的国际数学家大会,很多美国和以色列的大学都看中了这位年轻的当红数学家。然而,一些奇怪的事情发生了,佩雷尔曼拒绝给斯坦福大学的一个职位递交简历,说如果大学熟悉他的工作的话,就不会需要简历。同样的,他也拒绝了欧洲的一些科研机构。

  1995年,佩雷尔曼离开了美国,回到圣彼得堡。他告诉朋友,自己在美国赚的钱足够他下半生的生活了。他迁回到母亲的公寓中和母亲同住,并一直都和母亲生活在一起。此后的几年中,他就将自己大部分的时间封闭在这个公寓中,他几乎很少和同事联系,也没有和世界上其他数学家沟通。尽管他还能从互联网中获取一些数学界的最新消息,但是他已经完完全全沉浸在自己的研究中———直到2002年突然在网上发表自己的研究成果。这才最终完成了他这一生最大的成就。

  在俄罗斯,佩雷尔曼的名声已经超越了他的数学成就,他成为很多流言、笑话和漫画中的角色,但是在数学界,他依然是最令人尊敬的数学家之一。如同《纽约时报》评价的,他破解了庞加莱,“是数学发展,也是人类思想发展的里程碑”。

  本版编译/本报记者 金煜

  【新知补丁】

  ●庞加莱猜想

  法国数学家庞加莱1904年提出一个猜想,即在一个三维空间中,假如每条封闭的曲线都能收缩成一点,这个空间一定是一个圆球。简单来说就是:每一个没有破洞的封闭三维物体,都拓扑等价于三维的球面。

  ●菲尔兹奖

  这是一个在国际数学联盟的国际数学家大会上颁发的奖项。每四年颁奖一次,每次最多四人得奖。得奖者在该年元旦前需不满四十岁。它是据加拿大数学家约翰·查尔斯·菲尔兹的要求设立的。菲尔兹奖被视为数学界的诺贝尔奖。

  ●arXiv

  由物理学家保罗·金斯巴格在1991年建立的网站,本意在收集物理学的论文预印本,随后括及天文、数学等其他领域。现今的数学家及科学家习惯将其论文先上传至arXiv.org ,再提交予专业的学术期刊。

  ●怪僧拉斯普丁

  俄国尼古拉二世时的神秘主义者,擅长催眠术。因为对皇储阿列克谢的治疗工作而获得信任,可以自由出入宫廷。拉斯普丁掌握着对皇后的巨大影响力,甚至官员的任命都要先获得他的同意。1916年,他被政敌暗杀。


佩雷尔曼(Grigori Yakovlevich Perelman)才是真正让我感受到一个伟大数学家的风格,对于金钱名利不屑一顾的高尚人格,令我由衷地敬佩他。


他曾说过:“我不需要任何东西。我已经拥有我所希望的一切。”,的确数学就是他的一切。那菲尔兹奖(Fields Prize of mathematics)可不显得太庸俗了么?

他也说过:“我对金钱或名望没有丝毫兴趣。我不希望自己像动物园的动物一样成为一件展品。我并不是数学界的英雄。我没有那么成功,这也就是为什么我不希望任何人看到我。”,这么一句尤显得他是多么的谦虚,恰恰对比了那些试图将这破解'庞加莱猜想'(Poincare conjecture)的功劳占有的卑鄙大陆学者。可能这就是我们华人特爱面子的贼性吧。

现在这'庞加莱猜想'正式改名为"Grigori Perelman's Geometrization Collapsing Theorem for 3-manifolds"可算是给佩雷尔曼的一个肯定吧,好过被那些无耻的大陆学者用以欺名盗世。

Saturday, January 30, 2010

“格雷厄姆-多德部落的超级投资者们”

[此文章是翻译自我之前所分享的一篇有关巴菲特(Warren Buffet) 1984庆祝格雷罕姆与多德合著的《证券分析》发行50周年大会上,在哥伦比亚大学进行了一次题为格雷厄姆-多德部落的超级投资者们 The Superinvestors of Graham-and-Doddsville的演讲,在他演讲中回顾了50年来格雷厄姆的追随者们采用价值投资策略持续战胜市场的无可争议的事实,总结归纳出价值投资策略的精髓,在投资界具有非常大的影响力。]

格雷厄姆与多德追求值远超过价格的安全保障这种证券分析方法是否已经过时?目前许多撰写教科书的教授认为如此。他们认为,股票市场是有效率的市场;换言之,股票价格已经充分反应了公司一切己知的事实以及整体经济情况:这些理论家认为,市场上没有价格偏低的股票,因为聪明的证券分析师将运用全部的既有资讯,以确保适当的价格。投资者能经年累月地击败市场,纯粹是运气使然。如果价格完全反应既有的资讯,则这类的投资技巧将不存在。一位现今教科书的作者如此与写道

许如此!但是,我要提供一组投资者的绩效供各位参考,他们长期的现总是超越史坦普500种股价指数。他们的绩效即使纯属巧合,这项假说至少也值得我们加以审查。审查的关键事实是,我早就熟识这些赢家,而且长年以来便视他们为超级投资者,最近的认知也有十五年之久。缺少这项条件——换言之,如果我最近才从成千上万的记录中挑选几个名字,并且在今天早上提供给各位 -- 我建议各位立即停止阅读本文。我必须说明,所有的这些记录都经过稽核。我必须再说明,我认识许多上述经理人的客户,他们长年以来所收取的支票确实符合既有的记录

进行审查之前,我要各位设想场全国性的掷铜板大赛。让我们假定,全美国2.25亿的人口在明天早晨起床时都掷出一枚一美元的铜板。早晨太阳升起时,他们都走到门外掷铜板,并猜铜板出现的正面或反面。如果猜对了,他们将从猜错者的手中赢得一美元。每大都有输家遭到淘汰,奖金则不断地累积。经过十个早晨的十次投掷之后,全美国约有2.2万人连续十次猜对掷铜板的结果。每人所赢得的资金约超过1000美元。

现在,这群人可能会开始炫耀自己的战绩,此乃人的天性使然。他们可能保持谦虚的态度,但鸡尾酒宴会中,他们偶尔会以此技巧吸引异性的注意,并炫耀其投掷铜板的奇异洞察力

假定赢家都可以从输家手中得到适当的奖金,再经过十天,约有215个人连续二十次猜对掷铜板的结果,每个人并赢得大约100万美元的奖金。输家总共付出2.25亿美元,赢家则得到2.25亿美元

这时候,这群人可能完全沉迷在自己的成就中:他们可能开始著书立说:我如何每天早晨工作30 秒,而在二十天之内将一美元变成100万美元。更糟的是,他们会在全国各地参加讲习会,宣扬如何有效地投掷铜板,并且反驳持怀疑态度的教授说,如果这是不可能的事,为什么会有我们这215个人呢?

但是,某商学院的教授可能会粗鲁地提出项事实,如果2.25亿只猩猩参加这场大赛,结果大致上也是如此——215只自大的猩猩将连续赢得20次的投

然而,我必须说明,前述事例和我即将提出的案例,两者之间存在着若干重大差异。旨先,如果(a)你所选择的2.25亿只猩猩的分布状况大致上和美国的人口分布相同;如果(b经过20天的竞赛,只剩下215赢家;如果(c)你发现其中有40只猩猩来自于奥玛哈的某个动物园,则其中必有蹊跷。于是,你会询问猩猩管理员各种问题,它们吃什么饲料、是否做特殊的运动、阅读什么书籍……换言之,如果你发现成功案例有非比寻常的成功案例的集中现象,则你希望判定此异常的特色是否是成功的原因

科学的调查也遵循此一形态。如果你试图分析某种罕见的癌症原因 -- 例如,美国每年只有1500个病例 --而你发现蒙大拿州的某个矿区小镇便产生400个病例,则你必然对当地的饮水、病患的职业或其他种种变数产生兴趣。你知道,在一个小镇中发生400个病例,绝不是随机因素所造成。虽然你未必了解病因,但你知道从哪里着手调查

除了地理国家,还有其他方式可以界定起源。除了地理的起源,还有我所谓智力的起源。我认为各位将在投资领域发现,不成比例的铜板投掷赢家来自于一个极小的智力村庄。它可以称为格雷厄姆-多德部落这个特殊智力村存在着许多赢家。这种集中现象绝非巧合所能够解释

在某些情况下,即使非比寻常的集中现象也可能不重要。或许有100个只是模仿某一位极具说服力的领导者,而依其主张来猜测铜板的投掷结果。当他猜正面,100个追随者也会自动地做相同的猜测。如果这一位领导者是属于最后215赢家之一,则这100也便属于同一个智力起源,这项事实便不具有任何意义,因为100个案例实际上只代表一个案例。同理,假定你生活在一个父权结构极为严密的社会,而美国每一个家庭都恰好以父亲马首是瞻。20天之后,你将发现215赢家是来自于21.5个家庭。若干天真的分析师可能因此而认为,成功地猜测钢板投掷的结果,其中具有高度的遗传因素。当然,这实际上不具有任何意义,因为你所拥有的不是215位个别赢家,而只是21.5个随机分布的家庭。

我所要考虑的这一群成功投资者,共有一位共同的智力族长 -- 本杰明·格雷厄姆。但是,这些离开此智力家族的孩童,都是依据非常不同的方法猜测他们自己的铜板。他们各自前往不同的地方,买卖不同的股票和企业,但们的综合绩效绝对无法用随机因素加以解释。他们做相同的猜测,并不是因为领导者下达某一项指令,因此也无法用这种方式解释他们的表现。族知只提供了猜测铜板的智力理论,每位学生都必须自行决定如何运用这项理论

来自格雷厄姆-多德部落的投资者所具备的共同智力结构是:他们探索企业的价值与该企业市场价格之间的差异。事实上,他们利用其间的差异,却不在意效率市场理论家所关心的问题:股票究竟在星期一或星期买进,或是在一月份或七月份买进……当企业家买进某家公司时 -- 这正是格雷厄姆-多德部落的投资者透过上市股票所从事的行为 -- 怀疑有多少人会在意交易必须发生于某个月份或某个星期的第一天。如果企业的买进交易发生在星期一或星期五没有任何差别,则我无法了解学术界人士为何要花费大量的时间和精力,探讨代表该企业部分股权的交易发生时的差异。毋庸多说,格雷厄姆-多德部落的投资者并不探讨贝他值(beta)资本资产定价模型(Capital Asset Price Model) 、证券投资报酬本的变异数 (Variance & Covariance) 。这些都不足他们所关心的议题。事实上,他们大多数难以界定上述学术名词。他们只在乎两项实数:价格与价值

对图形分析师所研究的价量行为,我始终感觉惊讶。你是否会仅仅因为某家公司的市场价格在本周或前一周剧扬。便决定购买该企业呢?在日前电脑化的时代,人们之所以会大量研究价格与成交量的行为,理由是这两项变数拥有了无数的资料。研究未必是因为其具任何功用;而只是因为资料既然存在,学术界人士便必须努力学习操作这些资料所需要的数学技巧。一旦拥有这些技巧,不去运用它们便会带来罪恶感,即使这些技巧的运用没有任何功用,或只会带来负面功用。也在所不惜。如同一位朋友所说的,对一位持铁锤的人来说,每样事看起来都像是钉子。我认为,这一群具有共同智力起源的投资者非常值得我们研究。虽然学术界不断地对价格、成交量、季节性、资本规模以及其他变数,研究它们对股票绩效的影响,但这群以价值为导向赢家的方法却毫不受人关心

关于这一项绩效的研究,我首先要追溯到从1954年到 1956间,工作于Greham—Newman公司的四位伙伴。我们总共四个人 -- 我并不是从数以千计的对象中挑选这四个人。在我选修本杰明·格雷厄姆的课程之后,我要求进人Graham–Newman 公司担任无给职的工作,但格雷厄姆却以价值高估而拒绝了我的要求。他对价值看得非常严重!经我不断地恳求,他最后答应雇我。当时公司有三位合伙股东,以及我们四位学徒。公司结束经营之后,我们四个人陆续在1955年到1957间离开公司,目前只能够追踪其中三个人的投资记录

第一个案例(*正文不附表格,可参考查询文末所附的英文PDF文件)是华特·史洛斯。华特从来没有念过大学,但他在纽约金融协会参加了本杰明·葛雷厄姆的夜间课程。华特在1955年离开Greham-Newman公司。以下是亚当·史密斯”——在我和他谈论有关华特的事迹之后 -- 在《超级金钱》(Supermoney1972年) 书中对他所做的描述
他从来不运用或接触有用的
资讯。在华尔街几乎没有人认识他,所以没有人提供他有关投资的观念。他只参考手册上的数字,并要求企业寄年报给他,情况便是如此

华特介绍我们认识时,他曾经描述他从来没有忘记自己是在管理别人的资金,这进一步强化了他对于风险的厌恶。他有高尚的品格。并以务实的态度自持。对他来说。金钱是真实的,股票也真实的 -- 并从此而接受了安全边际的原

华特的投资组合极为分散,目前拥有的股票远越过100支。他了解如何选股,将价格远低于其价值者出售给私人投资者。这便是他所做的一切。他不担心目前是不是一月份,不在乎今天是不是星期一,也不关心今年是不是大选年。他的想法非常单纯,如果某家公司值一美元,若我能够以40美分买进,我迟早会获利。他便是如此不断地行动:他所持有的股票种类远比我的多 -- 而且比我更不关心企业的本质;我对华特似乎没有太大的影响力。这是他的长处之,没有人能够对他产生足够的影响力

第二个案例是汤姆· 纳普,他曾经和我一起在Greham-Newman 公司工作。汤姆于大战之前曾在普林斯顿大学主修化学,大战结束之后,他经常在海滩游荡。某一天,他得知大卫·多德将在可伦比亚大学开夜间投资课程。汤姆以旁听方式选修该课程,之后他对投资学科产生了浓厚的兴趣,于是正式注册进入哥伦比亚大学商学院,并且获得了MBA学位。35年之后,我拨电话给汤姆,确定某些有关此一主题的事,我发现他仍然在海滩游荡。惟一的差别是。他目前拥有一片海滩

1968年,汤姆与艾德·安德生——也是葛拉汉的信徒 -- 以及其他一、两位有共同信念的人,组成了帝地布朗合伙公司。帝地布朗合伙公司的投资高度分散。他们偶尔会从事控制股权的投资,但其被动式的投资绩效约略等于控权式投资的表现

3是格雷厄姆-纽曼公司第三位员工的投资业绩记录。他在1957年成立巴菲特合伙公司。他做出的最明智的决策是在1969结束合伙公司。从此之后,伯克夏。哈撒韦公司在某种程度上成为合伙公司的延续。我无法给各位单一的指数,用以合理地测试伯克夏公司的投资管理。但是,我认为各位不论如何考验它,它的表现一直都令人满意

表四是红杉基金经理人比尔·卢昂的投资业绩记录,我在1951年格雷厄姆的讲座中认识他。哈佛商学院毕业之后,他进入华尔街。稍后,他发觉需要接受真正的商业教育,于是参加了格雷厄姆在哥伦比亚大学开办的讲座,我们便相逢于1951年初。从1951年到1970间。比尔所管理的资金规模相当小,绩效却远比大盘来得好。当我结束巴菲特合伙公司的业务时,我要求比尔成立一个基金公司,来管理我们合伙股东的资金,他于是成立了红杉基金。他成立基金的时机非常不利。他面临两个层次的市场,以及以价值为导向的投资者相当难以运作的情况。我十分乐于提及一点。我的合伙股东不仅继续委托他管理,还投入更多的资金,而且对他的表现十分赞赏

其中并不涉及后见之明。比尔是我推荐给合伙股东的惟一人选,我当时就表示,如果他的绩效能够高出史坦普指数四个百分点,这便是非常稳固的表现。比尔的绩效远甚于此,而且所管理的资金规模不断地扩大。这使得管理愈来愈困难。资金规模是绩效的拖累,这是毫无疑问的。这并不意味当资金规模扩大,你的表现便无法超越平均水准,只是超越的幅度会缩小。如果你所管理的资金是2兆美元,则你的表现必然无法超越平均水准,因为你的资金规模便是整个股票市场的总市值

我必须补充说明一下,截至目前我们所观察的记录,投资组合在整段期间都几乎没有重叠。他们都是根据价格与价值间的差异来选股,选择的标的也截然不同。华特的最重要持股都是扎实的企业,如Hudson Pulp & PaperJeddo HighHand CoalNew York Trap Rock Company, 即使是偶阅读金融版新闻的人,对这些企业的名称也耳熟能详。帝地布朗公司所选择的标的则更是名不见经传的企业。另一方面,比尔的选择标的则是大型企业。这些投资组合极少出现重叠现象。他们的记录并非由某人主导的猜测铜板,其他人则只听命附和

5的投资业绩来自于我的一位朋友,他毕业于哈佛法学院,并且成立了一家主要的法律事务所。我大约在1960认识他,并且建议说,法律作为嗜好是件好事,但是他应该做得更好。于是,他成立了一家合伙公司,他的操作方式和华特迥异,他的投资组合集中在极少数的证券,因此绩效的变动比较激烈,但他仍然依据相同的价值折价法从事投资。他愿意接受绩效的上下震荡,而他恰好是一位精神极度集中的人。他的名字是查理·蒙格,他是我在柏克夏公司从事操作的长期合伙股东。当他自己经营合伙事业时,他的投资组合和我或任何先前所提到的人完全都不同

6 的投资业绩属于查理的一位好朋友——另一位非商学系出身的人 -- 毕业于南加州大学的数学系。毕业之后,他进入IBM,曾经担任推销员的工作。在我网罗查理之后,查理又网罗他。他的名字是瑞克·吉林。从1965年到]983年,史坦普指数的复利成长率为316%,而瑞克的绩效为22200%,这或许是因为他缺乏商学教育背景,他可以视为具有统计上的显著性

在此撇开主题:40美分的价格买进一美元的纸钞,人若不能够立即接受这项概念,就永远不会接受它。它就像注射药剂。如果它无法立即抓住这个人,则我认为即使你长期地说服他,并且展示各种记录,你也无法让他接受。这是很单纯的概念,但他们就是无法领悟。类似瑞克这样的人,他完全没有正式商学教育的背景,却可以立即领会价值投资法,并且在五分钟之后便加以利用。我从来不曾见过任何人,会在10年之后才逐渐地皈依这种方法。它似乎和智商或学术训练无关。它是顿悟,否则就是拒绝

7是史坦。波尔米塔(Stan Perlmeter) 的投资业绩。他毕业于密西根大学艺术系,是BozellJacobs广告公司的合伙股东之。我们的办公室恰好于奥玛哈市的同一幢大楼。1965年,他认为我所经营的事业比他的行业要好,于是他离开广告业。再次地,史坦于五分钟之内就接受了价值投资法

史坦所持有的股票与华特的不同。他所持有的股票也和比尔不同。他们都是独立的记录。但是,史坦买进每一支股票时,都是因为他所获得的价值高于他所支付的价格。这是他惟一的考虑。他既不参考每一季的盈余预估值,也不参考明年的盈余项估值,他不在乎当时是星期几,也不关心任何的投资研究报告,他无视价格动能、成交量与其他类似的变数。他只提出一个问题:该企业值多少钱

8与表9的投资业绩记录分别属于我参与的两家退休基金,它们并非是从我所参与的十几种退休基金中选择出来的,他是唯一两家我能够影响其投资决策的退休基金。在这两家基金中,我引导他们转变为价值导向的投资管理人,只胡非常少数的基金是基于价值进行投资管理的。表8华盛顿邮报公司退休基金(the Washington Post Company's Pension Fund) 的投资业绩记录。几年之前,他们委托一家大型银行管理基金,后来,我建议他们聘请以价值为导向的基金经理,这样能够使投资业绩更好。

正如你在投资记录中所看到的那样,从他们更换基金经理之后,其整体投资业绩在所有基金中一直名列前茅。华盛顿邮报公司要求基金经理人至少保持25 %资金投资于债券,而债券未必是基金经理人的投资选择。因此,我在表中也将其债券投资业绩包括在内,而这些数据表明他们其实并没有什么特别的债券专业技巧,他们也从未这样吹嘘进自己,虽然有25%资金投资于他们并不擅长的债券领域,从而拖累了他们的投资业绩,但其基金管理业绩水平仍然名列前一百名之内。华盛顿邮报公司退休基金的投资尽管并没有经过一个很长的市场低迷时期的考验,但仍然足以证明三位基金经理的许多投资决策并非后见之明

9的投资业绩属于FMC公司退休基金,我本人没有管理过这家基金的一分钱,但我的确在1974年影响了他们的决策,说服他们选择以价值为导向的基金经理。在此之前,他们采取与其他大型企业相同的方式来选择基金经理。在他们转向价值投资策略之后,其投资业绩目前在贝克退休基金调查报告(the Becker survey of pension funds)中超越其他同等规模基金而名列第一。1983时,该基金共有8位任1年以上的基金经理,其中7位累积投资业绩超过标准普尔指数。在此期间,FMC基金的实际业绩表现与基金平均业绩表现的净回报差额是2.43亿美元,FMC将此归功于他们与众不同的基金经理选择倾向,这些基金经理未必会是我个人中意的选择,但他们都具有一个共同的特点,即基于价值来选择股票

以上9项投资业绩记录都来自于格雷厄姆一多德部落 的铜板投掷者,是我根据他们的投资决策架构,在多年前便选定了他们。我了解他们所接受过的训练,而且知道他们的智慧、个性和脾气。我们务必了解,这群人只承担了一般水准以下的风险;留意他们在股市疲弱期间的记录。他们的投资风格虽然大不相同,但心态上始终恪守:买进的标的是企业,而非企业的股票。他们当中有些人偶尔会买下整个企业,但是他们经常只是购买企业的小部分。不论买进整体或一部分的企业,他们所秉持的态度完全相同。在投资组合,有些人持有几十种的股票;有些人则集中少数几支股票。但是,每个人都受惠于企业市场价格与其内含价值之间的差值

我相信市场上存在着许多没有效率的现象。这些来自于格雷厄姆一多德部落的投资人成功地掌握了价格与价值之间的缺口。华尔街的群众可以影响股票价格,当最情绪化的人、最贪婪的或最沮丧的人肆意驱动股价时,我们很难辩称市场价格是理性的产物。事实上,市场经常是不合理的

我想提出有关报酬与风险之间的重要关系。在某些情况下,报酬与风险之间存在着正向关系。如果有人告诉我我有一支六发弹装的左轮枪,并且填装一发子弹。你可以任意地拨动转轮,然后朝自己扣一次扳机。如果你能够逃过一功,我就赏你100万美元。我将会拒绝这项提议 -- 许我的理由是100万美元太少了。然后,他可能建议将奖金提高为500万美元,但必须扣两次扳机 ——这便是报酬与风险之间的正向关

在价值投资法当中,情况恰巧相反。如果你以60美分买进一美元的纸钞,其风险大于以40美分买进一美元的纸钞,但后者报酬的期望值却比较高。以价值为导向的投资组合,其报酬的潜力愈高,风险愈低

我可以举一个简单的例子:在1973年,华盛顿邮报公司的总市值为8千万美元。在这一天,你可以将其资产卖给十位买家之一,而且价格不低于4亿美元,甚至还能更高。该公司拥有华盛顿邮报、商业周刊以及数家重要的电视台。这些资产目前的价值为4亿美元,因此愿意支付4亿美元的买家并非疯子

现在,如果股价继续下跌,该企业的市值从8千万美元跌到4千万美元,其beta值也上升。对于用beta值衡量风险的人来说,更低的价格使它受得更有风险。这真是仙境中的爱丽丝。我永远无法了解,用4千万美元,而非8千万美元购买价值4亿美元的资产,其风险竟然更高。事实上,如果你买进一堆这样的证券,而且稍微了解所谓的企业评价,则用8千万美元的价格买进4亿美元的资产,这笔交易基本上没有风险,尤其是分别以800万美元的价格买进10种价4000万美元的资产,其风险更低。因为你不拥有4亿美元,所以你希望能够确实找到诚实而有能力的人,这并不困难

另外,你必须有知识,而且能够粗略地估计企业的价值。但是,你不需要精密的评价知识。这便是本杰明·葛拉厄姆所谓的安全边际。你不必试图以8000万美元的价格购买价值8300万美元的企业。你必须让自己保有相当的缓冲。架设桥梁时,你坚持载重量为3万磅,但你只准1万磅的卡车穿梭其间。相同的原则也适用于投资领域

有些具备商业头脑的人可能会怀疑我撰写本文的动机:更多人皈依价值投资法,将会缩小价值与价格之间的差距。我只能够如此告诉各位,自从本杰明·格雷厄姆与大 .多德出版《证券分析》(“Security Analysis”), 这个秘密已经流传了50年,在我奉行这项投资理论的35年中,我不曾目睹价值投资法蔚然成风。人的天性中似乎存在着偏执的特色,喜欢把简单的事情弄得更复杂。最近30年来,学术界如果有任何作为的话,乃完全背离了价值投资的教训。它很可能继续如此。船只将环绕地球而行。但地平之说仍会畅行无阻。在场上,价格与价值之间还会存在着宽广的差值,而奉行格雷厄姆与多德理论的人也会繁荣不绝

(备注:为了特现出此文章里我认为很有意义的片段,所以我为文章里某些部分加上黑粗体字.)